Modern Handun
<< Back to Conlangs =Handun= For centuries, Handun has been one of the most important languages in Drion. The official language of the Handun Empire, it has been established as the main literary, religious, cultural and legal means of communication for various people. It has also influenced several languages like Nerak, Takarash, Prondas and others. It is a conservative language in both phonology and morphology. On the other side, its vocabulary is much richer than any other Arishian language, due to the extensive use of derivation to create new words. Where other Arishian languages use one single word, in many cases Handun has several specialized words. E.g., Proto-Arishian has the word muyic for both "finger" and "toe", which is used in all major languages: Handun muyiç, Khib-renn moyet, Hennesad and Halton muyis, Garuk muit, but Handun has also mayaçiç for "toe" and ´amyuç for "(animal) finger". Derivational processes in Handun include the use of prefixes, suffixes and, more than all, infixes and stem mutations. One of the most used mutations is the change of internal vowels to '-a-' and the repetition of the last consonant (as can be seen in mayaçiç from muyiç). Other mutations include the loss of internal vowels (for longer stems; e.g.: nûshksha "motel" from nûshaksha "hotel"), the "normalization" of the vowels of a word (e.g. nuduhub "type of low energy fuel" from nudâhbî "fuel"). These derivational processes are not predictable nor stable. There are, however, some productive, established processes, which are used mostly in colloquial language but may be found, in very specific situations, in the other versions of the language as well. One of these is the "affective" derivation, consisting in using the vowel '-a-' in the first syllable and the vowel '-â' at the end of the word, dropping most other vowels. E.g., fûyûs "son", affective faysâ "((my) dear) son"; rulas´am "wife", affective ralsa´mâ "((my) dear) wife". Handun has its own alphabet, which is derived from a cursive form of the Difaron writing. Today, it is the third language of Drion, coming after Tláymyts and Dahur. Spoken Handun presents a large number of dialects, while the standard written language is relatively uniform both in the Handun Empire and in other countries that use the language. Dialects differ mainly in pronunciation and vocabulary, while morphology and syntax suffer little to no change. The main dialect groups are: *'Hanass', in the North of the Handun Empire; its characteristics are the loss of final short vowels and the change from ç''' to '''s. *'Yayamid', in the South of the Handun Empire. Main characteristics: shortening of long vowels; change of ay to e''' and of '''aw to o'. *'Lastal, in the Western borders of the Handun territory. Its main characteristics are the extensive use of derivative forms of nouns instead of primitive ones; change of f''' to '''h and of z''' to '''s; change of ç''' to '''f. =Morphology= Nouns Definiteness Definiteness is marked with the prefix (a)s-''' in both singular and plural. Indefiniteness is not marked at all. Examples: *'''lûfûç "(a) house" *'as-lûfûç' "the house" *'lûmbûð.ik' "houses" *'as-lûmbûð.ik' "the houses" Number Plural form of nouns have an infix '-m-' and a suffix '-(i)k'. E.g.: *'lûfûç' "house" - lûmbûð.ik "houses" *'siwu' "animal" - simu.k "animals" *'suyas' "aunt" - suymas.ik "aunts" *'mayadû' "bank" - maymadû.k "banks" *'lâbah' "hospital" - lâmbah.ik "hospitals" *'miwi' "knight" - mimi.k "knights" *'wafârla' "arm" - wamfârla.k "arms" *'wuwi´a' "star" - wumi´a.k "stars" The sequence my is changed to ym, while mw, nm and mn are simplified to m'. Case The following endings are used: *Dative: '-(a)t *Genitive: '-(i)s' *Locative: '-(a)l' *Instrumental: '-(a)m' The genitive form '-s' is used after vowels, semivowels and k'. After other consonants, '-is is used. Accusative is the same as nominative. These endings come before the indefinite ending: *Indefinite: **Nominative/Accusative: lûfûç "a house" **Dative: lûfûð-at "to a house" **Genitive: lûfûð-is "of a house" **Locative: lûfûð-al "in a house" **Instrumental: lûfûð-am "with a house" *Definite: **Nominative/Accusative: as-lûfûç "the house" **Dative: as-lûfûð-at "to the house" **Genitive: as-lûfûð-is "of/from the house" **Locative: as-lûfûð-al "in the house" **Instrumental: as-lûfûð-am "with the house" Gender Feminine is formed with the suffix '-(y)a'. It is used to distinguish gender in names of living beings (animals, professions &c.). E.g.: *'yahshasân' "teacher" (man) - yahshasn.a "teacher" (woman) - *'ahfufkaf' "(an animal like an) ox" - ahfufakf.a "(an animal like a) cow" Plural is made regularly from the feminine form: *'yahshasn.a' "teacher" (woman) - yahshasm.a.k "teachers" (women) - *'ahfufakf.a' "(an animal like a) cow" - ahfufakmf.a.k "(animals like) cows" Case endings are applied after the feminine ending: *Sing.: **Dative: yahshasn.a-t **Genitive: yahshasn.a-s **Locative: yahshasn.a-l **Instrumental: yahshasn.a-m *Plural: **Dative: yahshasm.a.k-at **Genitive: yahshasm.a.k-s **Locative: yahshasm.a.k-al **Instrumental: yahshasm.a.k-am Examples *'naçrif' "a hand" *'naçmarf.ik' "hands" *'as-naçrif' "the hand" *'as-naçmarf.ik' "the hands" *'as-naçrif-al' "in the hand" *'as-naçmarf.ik-al' "in the hands" *'as-naçrif-am' "with the hand" *'as-naçmarf.ik-am' "with the hands" *'wânli' "a chief" *'wâmli.k' "chiefs" *'as-wânli' "the chief" *'as-wâmli.k' "the chiefs" *'as-wânli-s' "of the chief" *'as-wâmli.k-s' "of the chiefs" *'as-wânli-t' "to the chief" *'as-lûfûð-al' "in the house" Adjectives Adjectives agree completely with nouns in definiteness, gender, number and case. E.g.: *'wânli mahmuçnif' "a brave chief" *'wâmli.k mahmuçmif.ik' "brave chiefs" *'as-wânli s-mahmuçnif' "the brave chief" *'as-wâmli.k as-mahmuçmif.ik' "the brave chiefs" *'as-wânli-s as-mahmuçnif-is' "of the brave chief" *'as-wâmli.k-s as-mahmuçmif.ik-s' "of the brave chiefs" *'as-wânli-t as-mahmuçnif-at' "to the brave chief" When used as nouns, adjectives also have full nominal declension: *'mahmuçnif' "(a) brave one" *'mahmuçmif.ik' "brave ones" *'as-mahmuçnif' "the brave one" *'as-mahmuçmif.ik' "the brave ones" *'as-mahmuçnif-is' "of the brave one" *'as-mahmuçmif.ik-s' "of the brave ones" *'as-mahmuçnif-at' "to the brave one" Comparison Comparative of superiority is made with the suffix '-âh' and generally some alteration in the structure of the last syllables: *'mahmuçnif' "brave" - mahmuçinf-âh "braver" *'wûðim' "good" - wûðm-âh "better" Relative Superlative is made with the infix '-ây(a)-' and the definite prefix: *'mahmuçnif' "brave" - as-mahmçâyanif "the bravest" *'wûðim' "good" - as-wûðâyim "the best" Absolute Superlative is made with the sufix '-îna': *'mahmuçnif' "brave" - mahmuçnif-îna "very brave" *'wûðim' "good" - wûðm-îna "very good" Pronouns Personal The first form given is the most common. Alternative forms are reductions or emphatic forms. *1st person singular: suk *2nd person singular: yâw(a) *3rd person sing. m.: lây(a) *3rd person sing. f.: fây(a) *1st person plural: ma´m *2nd person plural: çam *3rd person pl.: lahm Possessive Possessive pronouns consist of a prefix and a suffix, that are added to the definite form of the noun. *1st person singular: k-'''...(w)us''' *2nd person singular: d-'''...(y)ay''' *3rd person sing. m.: l-'''...(a)l''' *3rd person sing. f.: f-'''...(a)f''' *1st person plural: m-'''...(u)m''' *2nd person plural: ç-'''...(a)ç''' *3rd person pl.: t-'''...(w)ût''' There is a strong tendency to drop the endings. Examples: *'k.as-lûfûð(-us)' "my house" *'d.as-lûfûð(-ay)' "your house" *'t.as-lûmbûð.ik(-ût)' "their houses" Case endings come after possessive suffixes: *'k.as-lûfûð-us.la' "in my house" *'d.as-lûfûð-ay.s' "from/of your house" *'k.as-naçmarf.ik-us.am' "with my hands" With case endings, possessive suffixes are not dropped. Numbers Cardinal *0: layn *1: (´i)çân *2: law(a) *3: yây(a)m *4: nûs®îr *5: giçnû *6: rissâs *7: falla *8: muxûf *9: luy(a)m *10: yasûç *11: yasiçân *12: yaslawn *13: yasâymun *14: yasnûsrun *15: yasnuxçûn *16: yasfursun *17: yasfalun *18: yasmuxfun *19: yasluyun *20: yaduçî *30: tufsûnnân *40: nûçâhkîr *50: numâxfar *60: wumayruç *70: faxgâhan *80: kusihûç *90: duyafshû *100: saxtâmûh *200: law-saxtâmûh *1000: yâxtaçir *1234: yâxtaçir law-saxtâmûh tufsûnnân nûsîr Ordinal Ordinal numbers are built with the ending '-(y)îç': *1st: (´i)çânîç *2nd: lawîç *3rd: yâymîç *4th: nûsîrîç *5th: giçnûyîç &c. Verbs Concepts Arishian verbs show a number of derivational forms that express notions like transitivity, cause, passiveness and other ideas conceived in English by means of modal verbs. There are no auxiliary verbs or periphrastic constructions, all verbal expressions are made up with a single word. Infixes are used to create derivational roots. Aspect is indicated by means of infixes, prefixes or root alteration (mutation). Time is indicated by means of suffixes. Indication of person is rather complex. It depends on verb transitivity and on the existance and nature of direct objects. Derivation A verb root may have the following derivational stems: *'''-in-': Causative; Transitiveness. Changes an intransitive verb to a transitive one. Ex.: '''lufis' "lie down", lufinis "lay (something) down"; fa´huyrû´ "see", fa´huyinrû´' "show" *'ash-': Passiveness. Changes an active to a passive verb. Ex.: fa´huyrû´ "see", ashfi´huyrû´ "be seen" *'''-al-': Repetition. Indicates that the action is repeated several times. Ex.: '''fâwî' "shout", fâwalî "shout (repeatedly)" *'''-ak-''' (after the first consonant): Potentiality. Indicates ability ("can"). Ex.: fa´huyrû´ "see", faka´huyrû´ "be able to see", faka´huyinrû´ "be able to show" *'''-war-''' (before the last vowel): Obligation. Like English "must", "should". Ex.: lufis "lie down", lufaris "must lie down", fa´huyrarû´ "must see", fa´huyrinarû´ "must show" *'''-(y)î(y)-': Volitive. Translated by "want", "wish". Syllable structure is altered in most verbs. Ex.: '''fa´huyrû´' "see", fa´hîyurû "want to see"; lufis "lie down", lufîyis "want to lie down"; fâwî "shout", fâyîwî "want to shout"; ashfi´huyrû´ "be seen", ashfi´hîyirû´ "want to be seen" *Intensive: indicated by means of a repetition of a consonant or a whole syllable of the root, as well as the suffix '-(i)n'. Ex.: fâwî "shout", fâwâwîn "shout (many times or with great strength)"; luffissin "lie down and don´t move". Many verbs use an intensive form without any special meaning or to signal a special use of the verb. *'''-âni': Limitative. Indicates that the action is executed in a limited or tentative way. Root is generally shortened. Ex.: '''fa´huyrû´' "see", fahruwâni "try to see", "take a look"; lufsâni "lie down a little bit". Many verbs use an intensive form without any special meaning or to signal a special use of the verb. Aspect The aspects indicated in an Arish verb are the following: *'a-...-a': Aorist. Internal vowels are generally lost. Ex.: lufis "lie down", aor. alfsa; lufinis "lay (something) down", aor. alfinsa *'i-...-da-...': Perfective. Ex.: lufis "lie down", perf. ildafis *'kas-...-n': Inchoative. Ex.: mîwu "speak", kasmîwun "start to speak" Time Time is not generally indicated in verbs. If needed, remote past and future are indicated as follows: *'''-ûx': Remote (narrative) Past. *'-wam': Future. Person Intransitive Verbs Subject for intransitive verbs is indicated by means of suffixes. *1st person singular: '-(a)s''' *2nd person singular: '-(a)y' *3rd person sing. m.: '-(a)l' *3rd person sing. f.: '-(a)f' *1st person plural: '-(y)im' *2nd person plural: '-(y)ib' *3rd person plural: '-(y)it' Transitive Verbs For Transitive verbs, the subject is indicated by means of a prefix, while direct ocbjects are indicated by meas of suffixes. Subject *1st person singular: k(a)-''' *2nd person singular: 'd(a)-' *3rd person sing. m.: 'l(a)-' *3rd person sing. f.: 'f(a)-' *1st person plural: 'm(i)-' *2nd person plural: 'ç(i)-' *3rd person plural: 't(i)-' Direct Object *1st person singular: '''-(u)k *2nd person singular: '-(u)d' *3rd person sing. m.: '-(u)l' *3rd person sing. f.: '-(u)f' *1st person plural: '-(u)m' *2nd person plural: '-(u)b' *3rd person plural: '-(u)t' Examples fa´huyrû´ "see" Intransitive Imperfective *1st person singular: fa´huyrû´as *2nd person singular: fa´huyrû´ay *3rd person sing. m.: fa´huyrû´al *3rd person sing. f.: fa´huyrû´af *1st person plural: fa´huyrû´im *2nd person plural: fa´huyrû´ib *3rd person plural: fa´huyrû´it Aorist *1st person singular: afhuyras *2nd person singular: afhuyray *3rd person sing. m.: afhuyral *3rd person sing. f.: afhuyraf *1st person plural: afhuyrayim *2nd person plural: afhuyrayib *3rd person plural: afhuyrayit Perfective *1st person singular: ifda´ihrû´as *2nd person singular: ifda´ihrû´ay *3rd person sing. m.: ifda´ihrû´al *3rd person sing. f.: ifda´ihrû´af *1st person plural: ifda´ihrû´im *2nd person plural: ifda´ihrû´ib *3rd person plural: ifda´ihrû´it Future Tense *1st person singular: fa´huyrû´wam(a)s *2nd person singular: fa´huyrû´wamay *3rd person sing. m.: fa´huyrû´wamal *3rd person sing. f.: fa´huyrû´wamaf *1st person plural: fa´huyrû´wamim *2nd person plural: fa´huyrû´wamib *3rd person plural: fa´huyrû´wamit Transitive Imperfective *1st person singular: kafa´huyrû´(ul) *2nd person singular: yafa´huyrû´(ul) *3rd person sing. m.: lafa´huyrû´(ul) *3rd person sing. f.: fafa´huyrû´(ul) *1st person plural: mifa´huyrû´(ul) *2nd person plural: çifa´huyrû´(ul) *3rd person plural: tifa´huyrû´(ul) Aorist *1st person singular: kafhuyra(l) *2nd person singular: yafhuyra(l) *3rd person sing. m.: lafhuyra(l) *3rd person sing. f.: fafhuyra(l) *1st person plural: mafhuyra(l) *2nd person plural: çafhuyra(l) *3rd person plural: tafhuyra(l) Perfective *1st person singular: kifda´ihrû´(ul) *2nd person singular: yifda´ihrû´(ul) *3rd person sing. m.: lifda´ihrû´(ul) *3rd person sing. f.: fifda´ihrû´(ul) *1st person plural: mifda´ihrû´(ul) *2nd person plural: çifda´ihrû´(ul) *3rd person plural: tifda´ihrû´(ul) Future Tense *1st person singular: kafa´huyrû´wam(ul) *2nd person singular: yafa´huyrû´wam(ul) *3rd person sing. m.: lafa´huyrû´wam(ul) *3rd person sing. f.: fafa´huyrû´wam(ul) *1st person plural: mifa´huyrû´wam(ul) *2nd person plural: çifa´huyrû´wam(ul) *3rd person plural: tifa´huyrû´wam(ul) Samples Sentence *'Aç-çinlumçû.k as-mamdu.k imdashubu-t nafmgimrû.k, gurkûçdûn-al ma husismâç.ik-al. Lahm igawarshaf-it dîwar-al ma wûsdâð-al, ma bûnudarn-it as-´uhgayma.k-at 'îfsûçkan-al shâçinu-s.' **("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.") Nominal phrases *'lûfûç ´ahwîllin' "a small house" *'as-lûfûç as-´ahwîllin' "the small house" *'As-lûfûç (sawul) ´ahwîllin' "The house is small" *'Dûm as-lûfûç ´ahwîllin'; As-lûfûç dûm sawul ´ahwîllin "The house is not small" *'Sawul as-lûfûç ´ahwîllin?'; ´ahwîllin as-lûfûç? "Is the house small?" *'mîtus lamûnâ' "a poor man" *'as-mîtus as-lamûnâ' "the poor man" *'As-mîtus (sawul) lamûnâ' "The man is poor" *'Dûm as-mîtus lamûnâ'; as-mîtus dûm sawul lamûnâ "The man is not poor" *'Sawul as-mîtus lamûnâ?'; Lamûnâ as-mîtus? "Is the man poor?" *'As-da´nut as-lûçim-is (sawul) çaçlil' "The key of the door is here." Verbal Phrases *'(Suk) kafan´usul as-nîbîs´in.' "I am writing/am going to write the/this letter." *'(Suk) kifanda´sul as-nîbîs´in.' "I have written the/this letter." *'(Suk) kafna'sal as-nîbîs´in.' "I wrote/had written the/this letter." *'(Suk) kafan´uswamul as-nîbîs´in.' "I will write the/this letter." *'(Ma´m) çaçlil nughasim.' "We live here." *'(Ma´m) çaçlil inughdasim.' "We have been living here here." *'(Ma´m) çaçlil anaghsayim.' "We lived here." *'(Ma´m) çaçlil nughaswamim.' "We will live here."